Tell Me a Story: Using Children’s Literature with Secondary Students

by Susan Nightingale, A Pass Educational Group April, Contractor of the Month

When I taught ‘at-risk’ middle school math students, I often found myself looking for ways  to engage a group of students that had basically already quit before the school year even began. One such activity involved using children’s books, designed for elementary students, to introduce mathematical concepts to my learners. At the time, I didn’t realize that I was utilizing a learning method. I just knew that everyone loves a story, and a children’s story book looks much less intimidating than the usual explanations and examples in a Pre-Algebra textbook.

In graduate school a year later, I discovered that this method has a name—narrative learning.  Marsha Rossiter defines it as connecting learners with new knowledge through the experience of a shared story (Rossiter, 2002). This method allows the learners to build new knowledge of the subject by incorporating their own experiences in story format.

Humans like to listen to and tell stories, regardless of age. These stories help put our experiences into context and provide a framework for new experiences. Teaching using stories is often effective then, because the stories provide believable, human-like experiences that involve the reader in the characters and actions and engage the reader both physically and mentally (Rossiter, 2002).

This may seem like an odd idea at this point—using a child’s book with older or even adult students, so I want to provide an example of how this narrative learning might work. A story provides the place for the learners to begin, then connect with other stories, and then to build their own.

In my middle school classroom, one of the books I used was called Less Than Zero. This image and description are from Amazon.


“Perry the Penguin needs 9 clams to buy an ice scooter -- but he's not very good at saving. As Perry earns, spends, finds, loses, and borrows clams, a simple line graph demonstrates the concept of negative numbers.” This children’s story provides a simple example of an often confusing math concept—negative numbers. The story introduces and illustrates the concept and subject matter in a non-intimidating way.





Figure 1: Less Than Zero by Stuart J. Murphy

Before reading the story, I showed the students the cover and asked them to predict the topic of the story. I would then ask the students questions like “What does it mean to be less than zero?” I also gave the students a printed number line so they could follow along with Perry the penguin’s line graph in the story. As I read the story, I showed them the pictures and began to facilitate a discussion of negative numbers and how the graph helped Perry to understand what it meant to have less than zero clams. This led into dialogue and stories about similar experiences from the students including other scenarios where ‘less than zero’ could occur i.e. temperature, sea level, distance, etc.

After allowing the students time to connect with the book and with other learner’s stories, I asked them to write and illustrate (if appropriate) their own short children’s story about negative numbers, drawing from their own experiences. Eventually the students would share, revisit, and revise their stories as their understanding of the concept increased.

Utilizing a book like Less Than Zero provides students with a story, pictures, and a little fun to organize the subject into their memory. Starting with a children’s story creates a safe environment for older students to share and create their own stories. According to Leona English, children’s literature “innocently but effectively” raises questions and prompts responses (English, 2000, p. 15). Since the book is an example for writing stories of their own, learners are not offended or degraded by the children’s story.

Stories provide coherence of our experience by creating a narrative around the subject to be learned and fitting the pieces together until they make sense. We remember stories because they put a real face on what can often be fuzzy concepts. My example involved a Pre-Algebra math concept, but this same method can apply to virtually any topic. The children’s story provides the introduction and the context, but when the students connect the story and therefore the concept to their own experiences, that’s when the learning begins. When they write their own story, they build an even stronger connection and understanding.

References

English, L. M. (2000). Children's literature for adults: A meaningful paradox. PAACE Journal of
Lifelong Learning, 9, 13-23. Retrieved from ERIC database.
Rossiter, M. (2002). Narrative and stories in adult teaching and learning. ERIC Digests, 241.
Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED473147.pdf

Learn How to Use Your Smart Board in the Classroom

by Twan De Leijer of Gynzy  

Classroom teachers should understand how technology has changed the way students learn in the classroom. Many children today are exposed to computer technology at an early age at home. Most parents have computers at home and they teach their children how to use the technology for their benefit. Many young children are already playing computer games over the Internet or with other technology devices even before they enter the classroom on the first day of school.

Many teachers today may not have had the same exposure to computer technology when compared with their younger students. It is important for them to be prepared and knowledgeable about the use of interactive smart board technology. Professional development courses will teach teachers how to incorporate the use of this computer technology in the classroom. Smart boards when combined with thoughtfully prepared lesson plans can engage the attention of students, maintain high levels of motivation and encourage students to excel in their classroom studies. Once teachers have mastered the basics of using the interactive smart board technology in the classroom, they should receive ongoing technical support from school technology professionals knowledgeable about the technical aspects of using smart boards.

Student Learning Achievement is High with the Use of Smart Boards 

Students respond positively to classroom lessons taught with the aid of an interactive smart board. Using interactive computer technology and smart board displays engages the attention of young students. They are motivated to learn and study the subject material when they are able to relate to the colorful visual displays in combination with well- planned and thought out verbal explanations. Students are excited about their education in school when the lesson is combined with visual pictures and graphics. 

Students share, model and demonstrate what they have learned from the interaction with the instructional lessons displayed on a smart board. They enjoy playing the role of a teacher by moving around objects on the smart board or through using the smart board to write down information learned in the classroom. They learn to master advanced critical thinking skills when they convey this acquired classroom knowledge to others. Smart boards create environments that encourage students to ask questions and learn more about a concept by exploring knowledge on their own in addition to studying the information they learn through the prepared lessons and classroom instruction of a teacher.

Ways that a Smart Board Helps with Lesson Plans

A smart board in combination with traditional teaching styles can accommodate the different learning styles of students. Tactical learners can touch and mark the smart board. Audio learners can hear the lesson and discuss key concepts and ideas. Visual learners can see graphs, pictures and other visual representations of the key lesson concepts and ideas. All learners will enjoy taking a break from routine lessons to watch an entertaining movie or other short video.

Teachers can insert images on the whiteboard and move these images around the smart board display. The press of an icon button will play pre-recorded sounds for students. Graphic displays, interesting simulations and educational multimedia activities are other ways to engage the attention of students. There are a lot of recourses out there that you can easily integrate in your lesson plans. Teachers should never stop learning new interactive whiteboard techniques or stop finding interesting educational resources to use along with the smart board. Learning to use a smart board is not as difficult as it may seem at first. Teachers will find that with practice they can learn to adapt to the use of this new technology in the classroom.

For a wonderful collection of Smart Board activities and more please visit Gynzy. 

The Value of Fun

by Stephen Gibson, Director for Social Studies Development at A Pass Educational Group

As the A Pass Content Team deliberated our Professional Development series for our contractors, it was obvious from an early stage that we wanted to avoid the typical lecture-audience idiom, or even the “how-to” video so familiar on YouTube these days.  Instead, we wanted to stress the interactivity of the workshops and actually get our associates involved in not only learning (or giving ear-service to) the practical skills they will use daily in A Pass’ projects, but demonstrating those skills as well. The manner in which we chose to have the attendees show these skills may strike you as somewhat out of character for a group of serious-minded education professionals - we decided to play a game.

Games and play are frequently stressed as important, even essential, aspects of learning at early grade levels. There are articles, websites and even university-level conferences dedicated to the furtherance of these ideas. Yet many of these concepts seem to fade as students age, and commonly disappear altogether by high school, and almost certainly beyond. While there are endless possible reasons for this, including the increasing seriousness with which we perceive ourselves as we age, it could plausibly be posited that the same values generated by lessons imbued with play/games for young children - creativity, collaboration, confidence - also resonate through similar activities for older children and adults as well.

It’s no secret that nursery rhymes from our early years impart informational nuggets that stay with us for decades thereafter. Similarly, simple mnemonic exercises that range from optical physics (Roy G. Biv), music (Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge and its variants) to industrial arts (righty-tighty; lefty-loose-y) translate pieces of information into something that the brain (and perhaps the soul) finds palatable enough to keep around.  A quick poll of my colleagues old (or young) enough to remember can still cite the preamble of the United States Constitution to the melody of the Schoolhouse Rock tune (In this writer’s humble opinion, Schoolhouse Rock has never been bettered as an extracurricular vehicle for making U.S. History, Government and Civics, Multiplication, or Grammar accessible to elementary school students!).

For various and sundry reasons, we learn better when we have fun. According to Brian Blade, Director of Healthy School Communities, a program of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, an educational leadership organization, “Brain research suggests that fun is not just beneficial to learning but, by many reports, required for authentic learning and long-term memory.” Far from the criticisms that perceive the inclusion of fun in education as being clownish, “touchy-feely” and, perhaps, irresponsible, fun reduces physical and mental anxiety in very real and measurable terms, which is conducive to learning at all ages. When these barriers are overcome, engagement with content and material naturally increases. A truism? Perhaps, but all too soon forgotten once cap and gown are attained and disposed.  

Fun is frequently dismissed at higher and professional education levels, often because of its connotations of child-like behavior, lack of rigorous standardization, and decreased productivity. Yet the same biological and mental processes: the reduction of anxiety, the increased levels of endorphins, epinephrine (adrenaline), and dopamine, etc. occur in adults exposed to different aspects of “fun”: laughter, positive cueing, and the joy of discovery.

We chose our game, a “scavenger hunt” of sorts, to camouflage a series of performance tasks, each of which was aligned to a specific pre-determined learning objective. The Learning Objectives were finite, could be measured on a rubric, and represented the practical acquisition and application of skills our Content Team deemed necessary for associates to have when participating and collaborating with our staff on projects with our clients. While the attendees to the workshop were doing these tasks simultaneously, this was not a race to the finish - no awards were given for speed - the only competition was within the attendees themselves as they strove to get to the next level of the game by employing the knowledge they had learned from earlier in the workshop.  

We’re hoping that each attendee to the A Pass Professional Development series on Google Drive found their new “discovery” hidden at each level to be a “fun” aspect of the exercise.  Additionally, it is anticipated that the skills that they’ve acquired and demonstrated here will prove invaluable to them through their future APass projects.

Reflections on Jamaica

by Pauline Valvo, Project Director at A Pass Educational Group

Working as a Project Director, I sometimes feel pretty removed from the field of education that captured my passion as a young adult. My first teaching job was helping inner-city youth in Chicago obtain their GEDs post-incarceration. Watching the spark of understanding flash across their faces, witnessing their pride upon graduation, mentoring them through their first jobs, and helping some of them move out of the projects to build meaningful lives was incredibly rewarding. I eventually transitioned from teaching to writing curriculum, editing, managing teams of writers and editors, and most recently to a director role. Instead of spending my days actively engaged with motivated students, now I sit in front of a computer, replying to emails, reviewing contracts, processing invoices, and ensuring deliverables are completed by their deadlines. At times, I can forget that I’m working in the education field I care so much about.

Recently, I had the privilege of spending a week in Jamaica. I taught a couple of workshops on the topics of communication and community building skills. In addition, I visited some local schools, where I had the opportunity to interact with the children and talk with the teachers. Students worked at wobbly, beaten up old wooden desks and shared dog eared textbooks, and they were proud to show me their pencils and cherished notebooks. The teachers had minimal supplies to work with, no or little computer access, and shared that they often run out of chalk to use on their faded green chalkboards. The buildings are open air and sometimes don’t have electricity. The playlot at the elementary school I visited contained only a broken swing set and tattered seesaw and was bound by barbed wire. The soccer ball I donated was a huge hit, and we engaged in a lively game of “football” during their outdoor time.

Students were dressed in pristine uniforms, polite, well-spoken, and engaging. They shared with me their dreams of being farmers, dancers, lawyers, and the older students talked of going to college in the States. The teachers were thrilled to receive donations of supplies and proud to show us what they were working on. I was surprised to learn how important standardized tests are there, and that students are tracked based on how they perform in sixth grade. The tests they use in Jamaica are based on tests used here in the United States, as many students apply to college in the US.

I was inspired and reminded of why I chose to become an educator. One of my favorite quotes came to mind, by Maimonides: “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.” This is especially important in impoverished communities or countries. Education has the power to transform lives and cultures. What we create here in the United States impacts so many people’s lives.

Today as I worked with my spreadsheets, number crunching and revising schedules, I saw the faces of the school children and teachers in Jamaica working to pursue dreams. I thought about the hungry, dyslexic kid from inner-city Chicago trying to reason out a math question on a standardized test and the teacher whose job hangs in the balance based on test scores. I thought about the single mother who took out a loan so she could take night classes at a community college and the instructors who immigrated to the US and work three jobs to support their families.  

So I’m even more committed to being part of an organization that creates quality, accessible educational materials that help educators do their jobs more effectively and efficiently. I feel honored to contribute in the ways I do, to support teams of content experts, writers, and editors, knowing that the work we do individually and collectively has the power to positively affect thousands of people’s lives. Who can resist being inspired by the purity, innocence, and unbridled possibility that shines through this photo of Lashelle?

It’s Not the Tests, It’s the Teaching

by Anne Wujcik, Educational Research Analyst, MDR

There’s good news and bad news this week. The field testing of the new Common Core assessments from the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) appears to be going fairly smoothly. The bad news is that we’re still talking about testing, and I apologize for that. 

To say that things went fairly well is not to say there haven’t been problems, but there are no reports of massive failures or, for that matter, of sobbing students. It seems like teachers and students got the message that this is a test of the test, not of the students themselves or of their teachers. As for glitches and even outright failures, that’s what a field test is all about. In addition to vetting test items for validity and reliability, the field test provides an opportunity to identify weaknesses in the infrastructure.

The bad news is that these tests, for all their newness and attempt to be better measures of things that really matter, have come to command so much attention. When the testing consortia were first launched with the promise of tests that would assess more meaningfully and deeply students’ concept mastery, I was a fan. I’ve become more and more skeptical along the way. One of the problems under No Child Left Behind’s accountability system was that test scores were used to beat up schools, which resulted in a real narrowing of curriculum as more and more emphasis was placed on ensuring that students were ready for the year-end tests. I had hoped that new assessments, aligned more tightly to the Common Core standards that students would be expected to master and using new, more innovative item design, would limit classroom time devoted to test prep. Instead teaching to the standards would become the norm and teachers would be freed to innovate and engage in more in-depth exploration of concepts.

But we can’t seem to get our politics and our pedagogy in balance. While ESEA waivers seem to have solved the worst of the “failing” schools problem, the administration substituted a new stumbling block in its demand that student test scores count significantly in the teacher evaluation systems the states are rolling out. Who demanded that we implement a transformational set of learning standards, launch new technology-based assessments that challenged existing infrastructure, and then tied teacher evaluation (and pay and retention) to scores on those new tests all within a five year time period? It’s no wonder the states are making adjustments, pushing back the dates at which test scores count for both teachers and students. I’m not against accountability, but the question is what are we trying to do here – gather data that will help improve teaching and learning or go back to using that data punitively? Yes, test scores should matter. But it’s the teaching and learning that are central.

In the end, though we are currently arguing about the Common Core, testing, local control and student data privacy, it’s really all about transforming our schools to meet the needs of the 21st century. We have to shift from lecturing and listening to creating and exploring. The Common Core and other rigorous college- and career-ready standards, while not perfect, are a start and we have to find ways to support teachers and schools as they move forward. We need to celebrate educators’ embrace of STEAM (the "A" represents the addition of the arts to the traditional STEM disciplines), defend their experimentation with project-based learning, and clamor for more integrated, cross-curricular approaches to lessons.

If we want to see our schools maintain the more well-rounded approach that we all know is central to turning out not just college- and career-ready students but students who are prepared to thrive in an increasingly diverse and complex society, we all need to support the major shifts in the way in which teachers deliver the curriculum and the increased demand on students to take responsibility for their own learning. Parents need to understand that their children may have to work a bit longer and harder. Teachers have to resist the pressures, wherever they’re coming from, to once again narrow the curriculum and rein in innovation. Local and state education leaders have to be prepared to explain the benefits of more rigorous instruction and calm the fears generated by one set of test scores. Policy makers have to give the Common Core time to gel and grow roots. And we all have to begin a reasoned dialog about what we want for our students and how we are going to achieve that - a dialog we never seem to get around to in any meaningful way. And without a common vision, it’s hard to move forward.

What's Problem Solving Got to Do With It?

By Bill Kring, Mathematics Classroom Instructor and A Pass Educational Group Associate

When I was a child, my dad would give me problems to solve on our fishing trips. I would hunker down in the back window of our old Hudson and try to figure out what the answer was to the challenge he had given me. I thought for a long time I had been given a truly thoughtful father! I found out much later that he was using that strategy just to keep me quiet while he was driving us to the fishing spot. However, what it spawned was a joy and desire to challenge my mind to solve problems.

When I started teaching, problem solving often meant the word problems in the book. I didn’t see the connection between learning mathematics and the joy I found solving problems. It wasn't until the mid 1980s, after teaching for more than 15 years, that I had my eyes and heart opened to the power of teaching through problem solving. I had been the "Sage on the Stage" during the early part of my career, honing my skill as a presenter of mathematics. Most of my students were successful in learning what I had shown them, but there were some who had never made it to the level of learning I wanted for them. Fortunately, I had my style turned upside down through some training in how to use problem solving in the classroom.

So, what is this Problem Solving anyway?

In How To Solve It, George Polya proposed that problem solving could be taught as an art, an act of discovery, and encouraged presenting mathematics as an experimental and inductive science. This view of problem solving develops students’ abilities to become skillful and enthusiastic problem solvers, independent thinkers who are capable of dealing with open-ended problems. My dad had started me on this path, and I have followed it for most of my life.

Often, problem solving skills are taught as a separate topic in the curriculum. Teachers show students a set of general procedures for solving problems—drawing a picture, working backwards, making a list, etc. Students practice using these procedures to solve routine problems before attempting open-ended problems. Consequently, in many mathematics classroom settings, only advanced students get to open-ended problem solving, rather than offering it to allstudents.

I prefer to think of problem solving as the vehicle with which I teach mathematics. When problem solving is used this way, the emphasis is on finding interesting and engaging tasks or problems that help introduce or develop a mathematical concept or procedure. For example, a teacher could assign groups of students the problem of dividing pieces of licorice so that each student gets an equal share. This can allow students to get motivated (make discoveries about fraction concepts using a familiar and desirable object), to practice their learning (connect the concepts to skills), and to see relevance(fractions are worth learning).

One of the biggest challenges is finding the right problems, ones that have multiple possible answers found by various solution methods, while addressing important mathematical concepts. The right problems should connect to students’ previous learning, yet challenge and interest them. The focus is not on the answer to the problem, but on the methods for arriving at an answer. I like the analogy of the mule with a carrot dangling in front of it. If the carrot is too close, the mule eats it and goes nowhere. If it’s too far away, the mule sits down and goes nowhere. However, if the carrot is just far enough away, the mule will try to get it and make some progress, not minding that the carrot moves as the mule does. In a problem-solving classroom, the student perceives the problem as challenging (not too easy), yet not insurmountable (not so far out there that it is impossible).

Through open-ended problems, students make many of the decisions, not the teacher or textbook. They draw on previous knowledge and experience with related problems, constructing individual procedures before arriving at a solution. After the solution is found, the next step is crucial. The students must reflect on the problem-solving experience, trace their thinking process, and review the strategies attempted, determining why some worked and others didn't. This period of reflection deepens understanding of the problem, helps to clarify thinking about effective solution methods, and enables students to explain their reasoning to others. Thus, students can connect the problems and methods used to other areas of mathematics.

A couple experiences stick with me. I was able to be a guest teacher in a third grade classroom ready to study area and perimeter. I brought in some paper one-inch square regions and challenged the students to find as many polygonal regions made up of five pieces of paper. I was particularly struck by the enthusiasm and questions of a girl in the front row. She made wonderful discoveries about the area and perimeter and was willing to help others around her. I remarked to the teacher about the performance of that young lady. The teacher expressed surprise and delight. The girl was one of her special-education students who seldom was genuinely involved in the work of the class. The girl had been able to develop her own understanding of the mathematics and enjoy the work.

Another experience occurred in my Advanced Placement Calculus early on in my implementation of a problem-solving approach. We had been studying the calculation of area by taking thin "slices" and adding them. I asked my students to consider how they could find the volume of an onion I brought in to class. One of my struggling students volunteered to share his idea. I was pleased to see him get involved. He explained that he could peel the outer layer and think of it as a "ring", do the same for the next layer, and so on down to the core. If he could find the volume of each "ring", he could add them to get the total volume. His classmates, listening intently to his explanation, helped figure out how to do just that. He returned to his seat exuding a feeling of accomplishment he had rarely experienced before.

So, what's problem solving got to do with it? Nearly everything! Carefully chosen problems, implemented in conjunction with skill development, can get students excited about learning mathematics. They learn, too, that problem solving is not something they do every once in a while. It's a regular occurrence. Also, they develop persistence as they learn that what seems to be a new kind of problem is just an entry to new understanding. And, for me, it's more fun being a "Guide on the Side".

Bill Kring is a classroom veteran of over 30 years. He received the 1992 Presidential Award for Excellence in Mathematics Teaching. He was selected as the Contractor of the Month for February, 2014 by the A Pass staff.

Plagiarism: Punishment or Prevention?

By: Mona Meyer

According to a survey by the Psychological Record, 36% of undergraduate students admit to having plagiarized written material. A poll by US News and World Report found that 90% of students believe that cheaters are never caught or appropriately disciplined.  A study conducted by Donald L. McCabe found that 55% of college faculty would not take the time or effort to document suspected instances of cheating by students.

How troubling are these findings?

I think most would agree that discouraging plagiarism at college campuses by holding cheaters accountable for their actions contributes to a healthy society. But is punishment after the act really the best course of action? Is it even realistic, given that such a small percentage of college faculty seem motivated to document or report it?

What if faculty were to take a proactive preventive approach instead? To do this, they would need to understand the reasons WHY college students plagiarize. Consider the motivational differences between childhood and adult learners. It is well documented in educational research that children tend to be intrinsically curious and motivated to learn for learning’s sake, while adults are more motivated by how the learning can benefit them personally.

Consider, for example, John Keller’s ARCS model of motivation. According to this theory, to motivate adult learners, we should:

1. Gain their Attention by presenting novel or incongruous events or by posing challenging questions and problems to be solved.
2. Establish Relevance by appealing to the learner’s prior experience and demonstrating the usefulness of the skills being taught.
3. Build Confidence by allowing learners to control the learning environment and successfully complete tasks.
4. Ensure Satisfaction by presenting challenging tasks within a safe environment that promotes achievement.

Now, let’s take a look at the traditional methods of assessment used for college courses and consider whether or not they conform to these adult motivators.

1. For the most part, “survey” type courses tend to use assessment instruments such as midterms and final exams. These exams are usually multiple-choice format with the occasional short answer question thrown in here and there. Let’s look at this assessment method in terms of ARCS:
   1. There’s nothing particularly novel or incongruous about this sort of approach, and these instruments are usually more focused on fact recall than on problem solving. This sounds like a failure to gain Attention.
   2. Unless it’s very easy for learners to visualize how the information on the test is relevant to what they’ll be doing on the job, the Relevance is likely to be perceived as weak.
2. Do things improve when we move into upper-division coursework? In upper-division courses, learners are typically required to complete research papers and/or projects to demonstrate their mastery of the material. Although it’s true that Attention and Relevance are more easily achieved with this approach, we should also consider the typical measure of aptitude used in almost all colleges and universities for these assignments—the A-F grading scale.
   1. The fear of failure associated with using grades as a measure of aptitude certainly can undermine a learner’s Confidence. In fact, it’s not hard to imagine that learners turn to cheating to alleviate this fear.
   2. While most learners experience a sense of Satisfaction from the completion of a long-term project, this is often undermined by receiving a grade that is less than what they feel they deserve, given the amount of effort expended.

I’ll leave you with the following question, then. Should college professors expend a significant amount of time and energy trying to “catch” plagiarists, or would that energy be better spent designing methods of assessment that conform to theories of adult learning motivation? Food for thought.

This blog post was written by guest blogger and senior manager for instructional design at A Pass, Mona Meyer.